This is not in any of the code samples you posted, but the original wiki pages that are cited show that the affected images and links are wrapped in a TABLE BB-Code that is not the same one provided by VaultWiki.
This is probably related to the TABLE BB-Code you are using. IIRC, Waindigo tables used to lie in their internal data structures and claim to be plaintext entities, which caused conflicts with other add-ons. We added a workaround specifically for that BB-Code so that the plaintext flag was ignored, but if that add-on's ID or its code-base has significantly changed or another TABLE BB-Code entirely is now doing something similar, then the existing workaround might not be triggered. If indeed this can be confirmed to be TABLE-related, then this is not necessarily a bug but might be a feature request to add support for whatever add-on is providing it; it may or may not be possible to add support.